Abstract
Teachers' perceptions of AI use in language learning are mixed while policies and regulations cannot keep up with the increasing application of this technology in education. This study aims to explore L2 teachers’ conceptualization of learners' appropriate use of AI tools, their expectations of the role of administrators in response to this technology trend, and administrators’ response to such perceptions and expectations. A multi-method qualitative research design was employed. First, two focus group interviews were conducted with English language teachers at higher education institutions in Vietnam. Afterwards, four heads of school and program directors participated in semi-structured interviews where they shared their views of the trend and responded to the teachers’ expectations. Key results from the study include specific instances in which students should be allowed to use AI both in class activities and homework assignments, for example brainstorming and group work activities and self-improvement of language skills. The findings also reveal that only a few of teachers’ expectations have been addressed due to obstacles at the organizational level. Two important implications made by the study are the demands for updated and transparent policies and regular and open communication between educators and managers.
References
An, Y., Yu, J. H., & James, S. (2025). Investigating the higher education institutions’ guidelines and policies regarding the use of generative AI in teaching, learning, research, and administration. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 22(10). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-025-00507-3
Bandura, A. (2006). Toward a psychology of human agency. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1(2), 164-180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00011.x
Barrett, A., & Pack, A. (2023). Not quite eye to A.I.: Student and teacher perspectives on the use of generative artificial intelligence in the writing process. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(1), Article 59. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00427-0
Biesta, G. J. J., & Tedder, M. (2007). Agency and learning in the lifecourse: Towards an ecological perspective. Studies in the Education of Adults, 39(2), 132–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/02660830.2007.11661545
Bozkurt, A., Xiao, F., Lambert, S., Pazurek, A., Crompton, H., Koseoglu, S., ... Jandrić, P. (2023). Speculative futures on ChatGPT and generative artificial intelligence (AI): A collective reflection from the educational landscape. Asian Journal of Distance Education, 18(1), 53-130. Retrieved from https://www.asianjde.com/ojs/index.php/AsianJDE/article/view/709
Brown, H. D., & Abeywickrama, P. (2019). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices (3rd ed.). Pearson.
Calvert, L. (2016). Moving from compliance to agency: What teachers need to make professional learning work. OH: Learning Forward & National Commission on Teaching & America’s Future.
Chan, C. K. Y. (2023). A comprehensive AI policy education framework for university teaching and learning. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 20(38), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-023-00408-3
Chan, C. K. Y. (2024). Students’ perceptions of ‘AI-giarism’: Investigating changes in understandings of academic misconduct. Education and Information Technologies. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-13151-7
Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence in education: A review. IEEE Access, 8, 75264–75278. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2988510
Chisholm, J. S., Alford, J., Halliday, L. M., & Cox, F. M. (2019). Teacher agency in English language arts teaching: A scoping review of the literature. English Teaching: Practice & Critique, 18(2), 124–152. https://doi.org/10.1108/ETPC-05-2019-0080
Cong-Lem, N. (2021). Teacher agency: A systematic review of international literature. Issues in Educational Research, 31(3), 718–738. http://www.iier.org.au/iier31/cong-lem.pdf
Cong-Lem, N., Tran, T. N., & Nguyen, T. T. (2024). Academic integrity in the age of generative AI: Perceptions and responses of Vietnamese EFL teachers. Teaching English with Technology, 24(1), 28–47. https://doi.org/10.56297/FSYB3031/MXNB7567
Cotton, D. R. E., Cotton, P. A., & Shipway, J. R. (2024). Chatting and cheating: Ensuring academic integrity in the era of ChatGPT. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(2), 228–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2190148
Cox, C., & Tzoc, E. (2023). ChatGPT: Implications for academic libraries. College & Research Libraries News, 84(3), 99–102. https://doi.org/10.5860/crln.84.3.99
Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative Inquiry & Research Design. SAGE.
Dinçer, N., & Bal, S. (2024). A qualitative journey on instructors’ perceptions of artificial intelligence in EFL education. In F. Pan (Ed.), AI in Language Teaching, Learning, and Assessment (pp. 78–100). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3693-0872-1.ch005
Göçen, A., Akın Bulut, M., & Yurdunkulu, A. (2025, February 10). AI in school management: A new era of leadership. AIEOU. Retrieved from https://aieou.web.ox.ac.uk/article/ai-school-management-new-era-leadership
Echave, J. A., Acosta, O. D., & Donato, V. J. (2024). Embracing generative AI in education: Exploring teachers’ perceptions, practices, and potential impact. Jurnal Pendidikan Indonesia Gemilang, 4(2), 211–232. https://doi.org/10.53889/jpig.v4i2.458
Elkhatat, A. M., Elsaid, K., & Almeer, S. (2023). Evaluating the efficacy of AI content detection tools in differentiating between human and AI-generated text. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 19(1), 17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-023-00140-5
Epstein Gross, C. (2023, July 26). OpenAI abruptly shuts down ChatGPT plagiarism detector—And educators are worried. Observer. Retrieved from https://observer.com/2023/07/openai-shut-ai-classifier/
Espartinez, A. S. (2024). Exploring student and teacher perceptions of ChatGPT use in higher education: A Q-methodology study. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 7, 100264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2024.100264
Farina, A. (2024). Rethinking assessment and feedback: Adapting evaluation methods for the age of artificial intelligence (AI). In R. Y. Chan, S. Sharma, & K. Bista (Eds.), ChatGPT and global higher education: Using artificial intelligence in teaching and learning (pp. 206–218). STAR Scholars Press.
Fullan, M., Quinn, J., Drummy, M., & Gardner, M. (2023). Transforming school leadership with artificial intelligence: Applications, implications, and future directions. Taylor & Francis.
Funa, A. A., & Gabay, R. A. E. (2025). Policy guidelines and recommendations on AI use in teaching and learning: A meta-synthesis study. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 11, 101221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.101221
Grassini, S. (2023). Shaping the future of education: Exploring the potential and consequences of AI and ChatGPT in educational settings. Education Sciences, 13(7), 692. https://doi:10.3390/educsci13070692
Hennink, M. M. (2014). Focus group discussions. Oxford University Press.
Hua, H. H., Le, T. T., Pham, T. T. (2024). Exploring the integration of artificial intelligence in Vietnamese tertiary EFL education: Teacher perspectives and pedagogical challenges. Vision: Journal for Language and Foreign Language Learning, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.21580/vjv13i120398
Jan, M., Dar, M., & Rasool, I. (2025). From screen time to serenity: Understanding technology's influence on happiness. In Maqbool, A., Amin Dar, M., & Bhat, S. A. (Eds.) Teaching in the artificial intelligence era: Empowering educators for the future (pp.60-71). IIP Series.
Ju, Q. (2023, September 23). Experimental Evidence on Negative Impact of Generative AI on Scientific Learning Outcomes [Preprint]. arXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2311.05629
Karaköse, T., & Tülübaş, T. (2024). School leadership and management in the age of artificial intelligence (AI): Recent developments and future prospects. Educational Process: International Journal, 13(1), 7–14. https://doi.org/10.22521/edupij.2024.131.1
Kasneci, E., Seßler, K., Küchemann, S., Bannert, M., Dementieva, D., Fischer, F., Gasser, U., Groh, G., Günnemann, S., Hüllermeier, E., Stephan, K., Gitta, K., Tilman, M., Nerdel, C., Pfeffer, J., Poquet, O., Sailer, M., Schmidt, A., Seidel, T., & Kasneci, G. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274
Kennedy, K. J., & Castek, J. M. (2025). Empowering ELA teachers: Recommendations for teacher education in the AI era. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 25(1). Retrieved from https://citejournal.org/volume-25/issue-1-25/english-language-arts/empowering-ela-teachers-recommendations-for-teacher-education-in-the-ai-era
Ketamo, H. (2018). Dreams and reality: How AI will change education. The Blue Dot (Issue 9). UNESCO MGIEP. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000366389
Lieberman, G. (2024). The use and detection of AI-based tools in higher education. Journal of Instructional Research, 13, 70–80. https://doi.org/10.9743/jir.2024.13.4
Limna, P., Kraiwanit, T., Jangjarat, K., Klayklung, P., & Chocksathaporn, P. (2023). The use of ChatGPT in the digital era: Perspectives on chatbot implementation. Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching, 6(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.32
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2022). Second language research: Methodology and design (3rd ed.). Routledge.
Mhlanga, D. (2023). Open AI in education, the responsible and ethical use of ChatGPT towards lifelong learning. In FinTech and Artificial Intelligence for Sustainable Development: The Role of Smart Technologies in Achieving Development Goals (pp. 387–409). Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-37776-1_17
Moqbel, M. S. S., & Al-Kadi, A. M. T. (2023). Foreign language learning assessment in the age of ChatGPT: A theoretical account. Journal of English Studies in Arabia Felix, 2(1), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.56540/jesaf.v2i1.62
Nguyen, Q. H. (2023). AI and plagiarism: Opinions from teachers, administrators, and policymakers. Proceedings of the AsiaCALL International Conference, 4, 75–85. https://doi.org/10.54855/paic.2346
Nguyen, H. T. M. & Bui, T. (2016). Teachers’ agency and the enactment of educational reform in Vietnam. Current Issues in Language Planning, 17(1), 88-105. https://doi.org/10.1080/14664208.2016.1125664
Phuong, H. Y., Thu, H., Nguyen, T., Tra, N., Le, T., & Pham, T. (2024). University teachers’ perceptions on the integration of ChatGPT in language education assessment: Challenges, benefits, and ethical considerations. Proceedings of the 20th International Conference of the Asia Association of Computer-Assisted Language Learning (AsiaCALL 2023), 7-21. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-6463-396-2_2
Polat, M., Karataş, İ. H., & Varol, N. (2025). Ethical artificial intelligence (AI) in educational leadership: Literature review and bibliometric analysis. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 24(1), 46–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2024.2412204
Priestley, M., Biesta, G. J. J., Philippou, S., & Robinson, S. (2015). The teacher and the curriculum: Exploring teacher agency. In D. Wyse, L. Hayward, & J. Pandya (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of curriculum, pedagogy and assessment(pp. 187–201). SAGE Publications.
Priestley, M., Robinson, S., & Biesta, G. (2011, September). Mapping teacher agency: An ecological approach to understanding teachers’ work (Paper presented at the Oxford Ethnography and Education Conference, Oxford, UK).
Government of Vietnam. (2021, January 26). Decision No. 127/QD TTg on the national strategy for research, development, and application of artificial intelligence until 2030. Hanoi: Prime Minister. Retrieved from https://english.luatvietnam.vn/decision-no-127-qd-ttg-dated-january-26-2021-of-the-prime-minister-on-the-promulgation-of-the-national-strategy-on-research-development-and-applica-197755-doc1.html
Quay-de la Vallée, H., & Dwyer, M. (2023). The shortcomings of generative AI detection: How schools should approach declining teacher trust in students. Center for Democracy and Technology. Retrieved from https://cdt.org/insights/the-shortcomings-of-generative-ai-detection-how-schools-should-approach-declining-teacher-trust-in-students/
Rasul, T., Nair, S., Kalendra, D., Robin, M., de Oliveira Santini, F., Ladeira, W. J., & Heathcote, L. (2023). The role of ChatGPT in higher education: Benefits, challenges, and future research directions. Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 41–56. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.29
Rubin, L. M. (2024). ChatGPT and research ethics. In X. Lin, R. Y. Chan, S. Sharma, & K. Bista (Eds.), ChatGPT and global higher education: Using artificial intelligence in teaching and learning (pp. 179–188). STAR Scholars Press.
Rudolph, J., Tan, S., & Tan, S. (2023). ChatGPT: Bullshit spewer or the end of traditional assessments in higher education? Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching, 6(1), 342-363. https://doi.org/10.37074/jalt.2023.6.1.9
Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129–158. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/11.2.129
Suello, A. O., & Alda, R. C. (2024). English teachers’ ethical considerations in AI integration: A narrative inquiry. Journal of Teaching English for Specific and Academic Purposes, 12(3), 769–781. https://doi.org/10.22190/JTESAP241016057S
Tao, J. & Gao, X. (2017). Teacher agency and identity commitment in curricular reform. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 346-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.01.010
Turnitin. (2024, September). AI writing detection in the new, enhanced similarity report. Turnitin Guides. https://guides.turnitin.com/hc/en-us/articles/22774058814093-AI-writing-detection-in-the-new-enhanced-Similarity-Report
Turing, A. M. (1950). Computing machinery and intelligence. Mind, 59(236), 433–460.doi.org/10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433
UNESCO. (2021). AI and education: Guidance for policy-makers. https://doi.org/10.54675/PCSP7350
UNESCO & International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030. (2024). Global report on teachers: Addressing teacher shortages and transforming the profession (Revised ed., 187 pp.). Paris: UNESCO. https://doi.org/10.54675/FIGU8035
University of Northern British Columbia. (n.d.). The Limitations of AI Detectors in Academic Settings. https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/unbc/chapter/the-limitations-of-ai-detectors-in-academic-settings/
Wang, Y. (2021). Artificial intelligence in educational leadership: A symbiotic role of human-artificial intelligence decision-making. Journal of Educational Administration, 59(3), 256–270. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-10-2020-0216
Weber Wulff, D., Anohina Naumeca, A., Bjelobaba, S., Foltýnek, T., Guerrero Dib, J. G., Popoola, O., Šigut, P., & Waddington, L. (2023). Testing of detection tools for AI generated text. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 19(1), 26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-023-00146-z
Wolak, K., & Keffer, K. (2023). The pathway for appropriate use of AI in higher education. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.31735.80801
Zhai, C., Wibowo, S., & Li, L. D. (2024). The effects of over-reliance on AI dialogue systems on students’ cognitive abilities: A systematic review. Smart Learning Environments, 11(1), 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1186/S40561-024-00316-7

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) 2025 Author and CALL-EJ
